With a greater emphasis on technology and innovation, developing self-directed learners has become a predominant goal in 21st century education. Maker and design-centric activities, including 3D printing, may provide opportunities to foster self-directed learning (SDL) skills. To identify the elements that enhance SDL in adolescents during maker tool use, a systematic review of studies that targeted SDL was conducted. The review identified three main theories used to support SDL: a) self-regulated learning (SRL), b) inquiry-based learning, and c) problem-based learning. Each framework was evaluated on its applicability to 3D printing and making activities. Further, six key characteristics of SDL environments were identified as there were commonalities amongst frameworks. These include: a) guiding supports, b) SRL components, c) inquiry and choice, d) collaboration, e) differentiation: balancing goals with abilities, and f) hypothesis testing and inquiry. Based on these results, a set of practices is proposed that teachers can implement when using making-activities in their high school classrooms. It further provides a foundation for future research on the effective integration of 3D printing as an educational tool that extends beyond behavioural engagement. © 2025 The Authors
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