Continuous learning and development of the labour force is essential for maintaining and improving competitiveness. Combining working and learning in initial Vocational Education and Training is expected to promote further professional learning. The question remains, however, whether this combination is actually effective. Furthermore, labour market and education systems differ in the various OECD countries. In this review study the question is what effects different combinations of working and learning render for students/employees and employers, and to what extent this differs among international VET systems. Literature about direct effects (competence development) is relatively scarce compared to literature about indirect effects (e.g. wage). Furthermore, we found more evidence for weakly developed VET systems (e.g. US) than for systems which are considered strong in this respect (e.g. Germany). Altogether, we carefully conclude that combining working and learning has positive effects. The literature does not allow for straightforward conclusions about the differences in effects of various VET systems.
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